Digital Presenteeism: The Phenomenon of Apparent Presence and Employee Productivity in the Era of Hybrid Work
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.62872/p2kmxx56Keywords:
digital presenteeism, hybrid work, virtual presenteeism, employee productivity, always-on availability, digital visibility anxietyAbstract
Digital presenteeism has emerged as a critical yet underexplored phenomenon in contemporary organizational behavior, particularly in the context of the hybrid work era accelerated by the COVID-19 pandemic. This study examines the concept of digital presenteeism—defined as the condition in which employees remain digitally visible and apparently engaged while simultaneously experiencing diminished actual productivity—and its multidimensional effects on employee performance and well-being. Using a quantitative cross-sectional design, data were collected from 287 hybrid workers across multiple industries via structured online surveys using the Stanford Presenteeism Scale (SPS-6) and the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES). Multiple regression analysis revealed that always-on availability (β = -0.312, p < .001), digital visibility anxiety (β = -0.278, p < .001), work-life boundary violation (β = -0.241, p < .001), and supervisor digital monitoring (β = -0.189, p < .001) significantly and negatively predicted perceived productivity, while employee well-being was a significant positive predictor (β = 0.334, p < .001). The model explained 48.7% of variance in productivity (R² = 0.487). Findings underscore the urgency for organizations to establish evidence-based policies addressing the psychological costs of digital presence performance in hybrid settings, and contribute novel empirical insights to the emerging literature on virtual presenteeism and hybrid work management.
Downloads
References
Adisa, T., Ogbonnaya, C., & Adekoya, O. (2021). Remote working and employee engagement: A qualitative study of British workers during the pandemic. Information Technology & People, 36(5), 1835–1850. https://doi.org/10.1108/itp-12-2020-0850
Bloom, N., Han, R., & Liang, J. (2022). How hybrid working from home works out (NBER Working Paper No. 30292). National Bureau of Economic Research. https://doi.org/10.3386/w30292
Choi, W.-S., Kang, S.-W., & Choi, S. B. (2024). The dark side of mobile work during non-work hours: Moderated mediation model of presenteeism through conservation of resources lens. Frontiers in Public Health, 12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2024.1186327
Eng, I., Tjernberg, M., & Champoux-Larsson, M.-F. (2024). Hybrid workers describe aspects that promote effectiveness, work engagement, work-life balance, and health. Cogent Psychology, 11. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311908.2024.2362535
F, L., & Porwal, A. (2024). Impact of hybrid work model on productivity. Shanlax International Journal of Management. https://doi.org/10.34293/management.v11is1-mar.8095
Ferreira, A., Mach, M., Martinez, L., & Miraglia, M. (2022). Sickness presenteeism in the aftermath of COVID-19: Is presenteeism remote-work behavior the new (Ab)normal? Frontiers in Psychology, 12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.748053
Foley, M., Cooper, R., Vromen, A., Lee, T., & Tapsell, A. (2024). 'Everything now, all the time': The connectivity paradox and gender equality in the legal profession. New Technology, Work and Employment. https://doi.org/10.1111/ntwe.12300
Gaspar, T., Patuelia, M., De Sousa, B. V., & De Matos, M. G. (2026). Digitalization of work and the impact on the biopsychosocial health of the most vulnerable groups. Procedia Computer Science. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procs.2026.03.069
Gibson, C., Gilson, L., Griffith, T., & O'Neill, T. (2023). Should employees be required to return to the office? Organizational Dynamics, 52, 100981. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.orgdyn.2023.100981
Gifford, J. (2022). Remote working: Unprecedented increase and a developing research agenda. Human Resource Development International, 25(2), 105–113. https://doi.org/10.1080/13678868.2022.2049108
Hadjisolomou, A., Mitsakis, F., & Gary, S. (2021). Too scared to go sick: Precarious academic work and 'presenteeism culture' in the UK higher education sector during the Covid-19 pandemic. Work, Employment and Society, 36(4), 569–579. https://doi.org/10.1177/09500170211050501
Maity, R., & Lee, K. L. (2025). The impact of remote and hybrid work models on small and medium-sized enterprises productivity: A systematic literature review. SN Business & Economics, 5. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43546-025-00931-7
Mat-Artun, D., & Küskü, F. (2025). Virtual presenteeism and employee well-being in remote work from the perspective of the job demands-resources model. International Social Science Journal. https://doi.org/10.1111/issj.70023
Mateen, A., Khoso, R. A., Ullah, W., Shakil, M., & Latif, A. (2025). Employee well-being in hybrid work environments: Balancing productivity, preventing digital burnout, and promoting mental health in the era of remote and flexible work. Inverge Journal of Social Sciences. https://doi.org/10.63544/ijss.v4i4.180
Mikołajczyk, K., Wojtczuk-Turek, A., Molek-Winiarska, D., & Haromszeki, Ł. (2026). Managers in the context of hybrid work: The impact of ICT demands on outcomes. International Journal of Productivity and Performance Management. https://doi.org/10.1108/ijppm-07-2025-0756
Mitsakis, F., Hadjisolomou, A., & Kouki, A. (2026). The cost of constant availability: A moral injury perspective on virtual presenteeism in UK academia. Employee Relations: The International Journal. https://doi.org/10.1108/er-09-2025-0742
Moe-Byrne, T., Shepherd, J., Merecz-Kot, D., Sinokki, M., Naumanen, P., Roijen, H.-V., & Van Der Feltz-Cornelis, C. (2022). Effectiveness of tailored digital health interventions for mental health at the workplace: A systematic review of randomised controlled trials. PLOS Digital Health, 1. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pdig.0000123
Mustajab, D. (2024). Exploring the effectiveness of remote and hybrid work policies: A literature review on workforce management practices. Jurnal Manajemen Bisnis. https://doi.org/10.33096/jmb.v11i2.798
Nowrouzi-Kia, B., Haritos, A., Long, B.-Z. S., Atikian, C., Fiorini, L., Gohar, B., Howe, A., Li, Y., & Bani-Fatemi, A. (2024). Remote work transition amidst COVID-19: Impacts on presenteeism, absenteeism, and worker well-being—A scoping review. PLOS ONE, 19. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0307087
Nowrouzi-Kia, B., Nandan, S., Formuli, E., Balakrishnar, K., Bani-Fatemi, A., Howe, A., Li, Y., Fiorini, L., Avila, S., Atikian, C., Zhou, K., Jain, M., & Gohar, B. (2025). Sick leave or work sick? Examining the antecedents and conceptualizations of presenteeism and absenteeism among teleworkers during COVID-19: A scoping review. PLOS Mental Health, 2. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmen.0000300
Nuswantoro, B. (2025). Exploring the role of visibility in hybrid work. Victoria University of Wellington. https://doi.org/10.26686/wgtn.29551604
Putri, F. A. T. (2025). Hybrid work and its impact on employee productivity and well-being in technology companies. Journal of Management Economic and Financial. https://doi.org/10.46799/jmef.v2i3.169
Ribeiro, J., Da Silva, F. P., & Vieira, P. R. (2024). Remote workers' well-being: Are innovative organizations really concerned? A bibliometrics analysis. Journal of Innovation & Knowledge. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jik.2024.100595
Rivkin, W., Diestel, S., Gerpott, F., & Unger, D. (2022). Should I stay or should I go? The role of daily presenteeism as an adaptive response to perform at work despite somatic complaints for employee effectiveness. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1037/ocp0000322
Ruhle, S., & Schmoll, R. (2021). COVID-19, telecommuting, and (virtual) sickness presenteeism: Working from home while ill during a pandemic. Frontiers in Psychology, 12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.734106
Salvoni, S., Biron, C., Gilbert, M.-H., Dextras-Gauthier, J., & Ivers, H. (2024). Managing virtual presenteeism during the COVID-19 pandemic: A multilevel study on managers' stress management competencies to foster functional presenteeism. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 21. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph21091115
Sari, A. P., & Wening, N. (2025). The impact of hybrid work system implementation on employee performance in the digital era. Journal of Social Work and Science Education. https://doi.org/10.52690/jswse.v6i2.1217
Schmitz, H., Bauer, J., & Niehaus, M. (2023). Working anytime and anywhere—Even when feeling ill? A cross-sectional study on presenteeism in remote work. Safety and Health at Work, 14, 375–383. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.shaw.2023.11.001
Shimura, A., Yokoi, K., Ishibashi, Y., Akatsuka, Y., & Inoue, T. (2021). Remote work decreases psychological and physical stress responses, but full-remote work increases presenteeism. Frontiers in Psychology, 12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.730969
Tusińska, M., Ostoj, I., Trzęsiok, J., Król, M., & Karczewska, M. (2026). Digitalization as a challenge to sustainable work: Sources of deteriorating working conditions in Central Europe. Sustainability. https://doi.org/10.3390/su18062929
Vanitha, N., & T, S. (2024). A systematic literature review on impact of hybrid work culture on employee job engagement and productivity—A study of IT professionals in Karnataka. EPRA International Journal of Research & Development (IJRD). https://doi.org/10.36713/epra15360
Woźniak-Jasińska, K. (2026). Sickness presenteeism in remote work: Insights from a systematic review. E+M Ekonomie a Management. https://doi.org/10.15240/tul/001/2026-2-002
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Atiek Ike Wijayanti, Ahmad Fauzi Pane, Achmad Nur Khaeri, Miko Mei Irwanto (Author)
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
